Thus speaks Achilles, the first great hero of the Ancient Greeks. As a hero, Achilles' primary concerns are with the idea of agon, the contest, and arete, the notion of an excellence that sets him apart from other men. Achilles finally proves his unassailable arete in battle, establishing an implicit relationship between men, competition, and physical courage. Verifiably held as early as 776 B.C.E., the first Olympic Games were also an Ancient Greek idea, and at least one record of cheating is almost 2,000 years old as well. In 65 C.E., the Roman Emperor Nero won three gold medals for chariot racing. That Nero forced all of his opponents to withdraw from the races did not seem to bother Nero!
Crane Brinton, in his History of Western Morals, takes the next step in discussing the idea of excellence, which the Renaissance called virtu. Although "the principle and true profession of the [gentleman]" was still considered "to be that of arms" (Plumb 314), Brinton quotes Johan Huizinga, the Dutch historian, who explains that the elite "'live[d] life as a game of artistic perfection'" (242). Brinton emphasizes this when he points out that for Renaissance gentlemen, virtu meant "doing supremely well, gracefully, and, if possible, with no sign of effort, what [their] society esteemed most worth doing" (248). Thus, the idea of "dash" is added to the chain which continues to link the masculine, the competitive, and battle.
But all competitions were not occasions for graceful behavior, and endless combat had apparently fallen at least somewhat out of favor, as by the seventeenth century, the German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was already congratulating the Chinese on their laws and their society, in which neither kings nor their subjects were either competitive or covetous (Lovejoy 104).
Not until the nineteenth century did the next and possibly the most far-reaching thinking on competition appear, as this time the thinking was to have much wider social ramifications than ever before. Richard Means summarizes both the principles and their abuse:
The social Darwinists . . . believed that society was . . . always progressing . . . The mechanism by which this took place was not cooperation . . . but rather competition between men, which they believed had a benign and salutary effect on human character. In a misinterpretation of Darwin, the idea of "survival of the fittest": was applied to economic problems, the social order, and human life in general, becoming a rationalization for economic and social exploitation. (119-20)
This "economic and social exploitation" culminated in the anti-trust legislation known as the Sherman Act. Passed in 1890, the act provided the first formal acknowledgment that in many fields real economic competition had been lost to monopolies, and by the Fifties, many business practices, formerly seen as necessarily and healthily competitive, were under scrutiny. In 1957, Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee chaired the Senate subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly policies, in an attempt to expose price fixing in a number of industries. Subsequently, he identified several aspects of American life affected negatively by the lack of competition which is a result of monopolistic practices by big business. Albert Lauterbach, a psychotherapist, has also described the negative effects of an excess of competition on individuals in his dealings with "neurotic patients who have been 'successful' by prevailing social standards" (50), but he writes that these patients live '''in a world of competitive violence'" (51).
This historical survey began with a look at the Ancient Greeks and what they offered over 2500 years ago, in terms of agon, and arete, both defined at least partly by physical courage. Do these ideas still hold true for modern notions of Olympic glory? Dr. Robert Voy has this to say in his book Drugs, Sport and Politics, published in 1993: "Consider this. A number of elite-level athletes were asked if, hypothetically, they would be willing to take a special pill that would guarantee them an Olympic gold medal even if they knew this pill would kill them within a year. Over 50 percent of the athletes surveyed said yes" (115)
Perhaps the most curious aspect of this overview is how one-dimensional it seems--in terms of gender. Hardly a woman seems to have raised her head--except as an unsuspecting victim of social Darwinism, or as a biologically altered creature like Polish sprinter Ewa Kolbukawska, whose "Chromosome count [studied in 1967] cast doubt on her femininity" (Voy 10). Of course, the 1994 Winter Olympics provided a grandstand seat from which to consider feminine competition. We may skip lightly over Bonnie Blair, who did nothing but win five gold medals, to contemplate instead Nancy Kerrigan, "America's sweetheart," almost brought to grief by bleached-blond toughie Tonya Harding. What really were all of the layers of competition at work hear? Is it possible to drag in not only athleticism and beauty versus the beast, but the effects of birth order or family structure on the respective competitors? Margaret M. Hoopes and James m. Harper in their book Birth Order Roles and Sibling Patterns in Individual and Family Therapy certainly think birth order and familial situations affect competitive behavior.
Ultimately, with whom do you compete--and why? Is your competition self-imposed--doing a crossword puzzle or trying to better your performance on the Stair master at the Fitness Center? What about buying a lottery ticket? Have you ever succumbed to the promises of victory implicitly offered in wearing original Levi's 501's? Is your competition on the cover of Cosmopolitan or Rolling Stone? Each of you has had, by now, numerous experiences with competitions of many varieties. Writing this final paper should help you to examine these experiences.
To prepare for this final exam, read the articles in the packet, discuss them, and draw your own conclusions, supported by analysis and examples. The full text of excerpts as well as additional materials are on reserve at the library; ask for the common final materials.
In past exams, students who planned writing strategies did a better job on the final. Brainstorming and prewriting are good ways to generate material for your essay. You may bring into the exam one 3" by 5" note card containing outlines, thesis statements, or notes. You may also bring this test packet, a dictionary and a thesaurus. Computerized sections may write on computer.
During the final exam period, you will be assigned two of the following topics and allowed to choose one of the two. Write a well-developed, multiple paragraph essay which responds to the topic. Your response should reflect familiarity with the source material in the packet. Make sure that your essay addresses the issue raised and follows the organizational pattern specified.
- Choose one and support with examples: Competition is essentially beneficial or competition is essentially harmful. (Thesis developed by example.)
- Classify types of competitions. Students are encouraged to choose the sorts of competitions with which they have been personally involved. (Thesis developed by classification.)
- Compare and/or contrast two types of competition. (Thesis developed by comparison and contrast.)
- Analyze how competition may affect social ethics. (Thesis developed by cause and effect.)
Excerpted articles included in the packet:
Allman, William F. "The Mental Edge." U.S. News and World Report 3 Aug 92: 50+. Reproduced in SIRS
Combined Text and Index CD-ROM. Bocca Raton, FL: Social Issues Resources Series, 1992.
Asma, Stephen, "The New Social Darwinism--Deserving Your Destitution." The Humanist Sep-Oct 1993:10-12.
"Athletes and Drugs." CQ Researcher 26 June 91: 513-536.Bartlett's Familiar Quotations page 757 "Andrew Carnegie"
Brown, Ben. "Discovering Ageless Truth About Sports." USA Today. 1 Mar 1990: 1C+ . SIRS 1990.
Krugman, Paula. "Myths and Realities of U.S. Competitiveness." Science 8 Nov 91: 811-814.
Leo, John. "Phys ed, or self-esteem." U.S. News & World Report 31 May, 1993: 21.
Linsey, Brink. "Personal Best--The Spiritual Side of Capitalism." Reason July 1992: 20-27. SIRS 1992.
"Outsmarting an Office Rival." Working Woman August 1991: 14.
Roberts, Roger F. "Competition and Cooperation." Vital Speeches of the Day 1 Dec 91: 111-113.
"The Secret World of Siblings." U.S. News and World Report 10 Jan 94: 45-50.
"Whose Game Is It, Anyway?" Parents October 1991: 90+.
"Young breed of cheaters marring livestock shows." Arizona Republic, Sunday, March 20, 1994: A17.